What problems are associated with trying to measure social class?

The main problem with trying to measure social class is that the term social class is most controversial. Therefore the way in which it is measured will vary according to how it is defined. Many theorists argue that the question of how to measure social class cannot be separated from the question of class-consciousness. Thompson believed that social class would only exist if there were class- consciousness. By this he meant â€Å"class is only class if you believe that you belong to a certain class†. What this meant was that individuals in the same class situation share a sense of their common interest, and thus think or behave in a similar manner. Whereas Marx believed that class was identified according to an individuals relationship to the dominant mode of production. He believed that the â€Å"two great classes† of a capitalist society were the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The bourgeoisie were those who were the owners and controllers of the means of production ands the proletariat were those who only had their own labour power, which they were forced to sell in order to survive. This then leads to class inequalities, as the bourgeoisie will aim to maximise production with minimum costs. This would mean that the bourgeoisie make the proletariat work exceptionally hard and pay very little. Marx would argue that these economic inequalities lead to class inequalities. The main way in which individuals are allocated to their â€Å"social class† is via their employment position and the structure of employment has been divided up in various ways in order to generate them. This is know as the employment aggregate approach to class analysis. There are many ways in which class schemes that are available. One of the main schemes is the register general. This scheme has six categories, ranging from professional occupations to unskilled manual workers, which clearly show the hierarchy of occupations advantages and disadvantages. The register generals class scheme show support for Marxist theory of class inequality on the bases of economic factors. As he argued that class division does occur on the bases of the type of employment you are in and the register general's class scheme clearly reflects this. Marx would also go on to argue that those in the lower professions are unable to move up the class structure as it is not in the interest of the bourgeoisie, also they are not given the same life chances as the bourgeoisie, for example the education that those in the top professions receive is argued to be better than those in the lower professions. It has also been argued that even if social mobility does occur its is much harder for the working class to get to the top professions as they are faced with more difficult along the way. However there are a number of problems with using the register generals class scheme to define which social class an individual belongs to. This is because in order to gain the information to categories individuals into their social class the Government produce a census form, which the public must complete. However because it is a questionnaire there are many methodological problems associated with it. The main one being that the public may not be completely honest when completing the form, in fear of being judged or not wanting others to know their personal information. Also the census only requires a simple job description and not detailed information, this can not then be a reliable way in which to categories peoples occupational status. Another problem with using occupational scales to measure social class is that although a certain job may come under the heading of a manual worker the actual job it self may be highly paid and involve a lot of skill, but due to the fact the individual is doing manual work they would still be classified as working class. An example of this would be a builder, their job involves a lot of skill and is highly paid but it is still a manual job, therefore you would be considered working class. Another main problem with using the register generals class scheme is that there are many people who don't classify to any of the categories provided. For example domestic workers and employer don't figure in the scale therefore how can they be allocated to a certain class. Another method for measuring social class is on cultural and political factors. What is meant by this is that the type of lifestyle you lead is a measure for what social class you fit into. For example if an individual wears designer clothes such as Gucci and drives a fashionable car then they would be consider to be middle or even upper class, due to their lifestyle. However if an individual was to elect Labour in the public election then they would be considered to be working class as they are believed to be a working class political party. The problem with using this measure of social class is that it is very subjective and to what one individual would define as middle class another may define as working class. Also another problem is that although a person may have the lifestyle of a middle class person e. g. expensive clothes etc they may have a working class job and therefore work extremely long hours in order to live a life similar to the middle class. Another problem with class measurement is the gender factor, although many theorist consider the topic of class to be gender neutral, it has been argued by many that this is not the case. It has been argued that the class structure for men differs from women's due to employment opportunities. It was not until recently that women were actually able to do the same jobs as men and get equal pay. Therefore this would cause problems when measuring women's class position, because although they were working their income was fairly low compared to men doing the same job. Therefore a man and women who doing similar jobs were unlikely to be measured at the same social class if the cultural method was being used. However if they using the employment aggregated method they would be the same social class. This therefore shows the some of the problems with the different methods available. The other gender problem is that until recently women were not able to get the highly professional and powerful jobs therefore would not have been considered as middle class unless there husbands job was middle class. However once women were able to get the higher positioned jobs their employment still had little effect on the families social position because it was always the males employment that was used even if it was lower than the women's. Therefore having considered the different measures that are available to measure social class I believe that it very difficult to measure a persons class position on just the bases of either their occupation, cultural or political factors. This is because I don't believe a person occupation does necessarily indicate which class a person belongs to. This is because although a person may have a professional job there wealth in terms of assets may be very low. Also an individuals may have a classification of a professional job but their status within that job may be low, that's why I feel that Goldthorpe's class scheme is a more accurate than the register generals. Having brought this discussion to an end I believe that in order to accurately measure an individuals social class position all three dimension should be measure (economic, political and cultural) as this would give a more valid social class position.

Being Single and Being Married Essay

When I was twenty years old, my mother told me that it was times for me to get married. I replied to my mother whenever I succeed in life and able and anxious to protect our family, I am going to think about having a home of their own. Not only I but also people who is living in today’s society, tends to being single or married later. However, living in every situation has every its own advantages and disadvantages. There are some differences that I know between being single and being married, such as: times, finances and relationships. Firstly, the difference between being single and being married is times. Every morning waking up, doing house work calling to friends or going to shopping is the life of single. That is life without the constraints, so freedom and independence are slogan of single persons. They have a lot of time to go anywhere or do anything that they like. Opposite to being single, married life is a race against time. Exception time spent of work, most of the remaining time is for family. The time for the family as teaching, taking care of child, cooking or housework is one of the conditions required in marriage. Time is seen as a wire to close people in the family together. It creates happiness that everyone wants to be. So, being married is a hot thread that persons who take interest in, spends a lot of time to think and get experiences about it. Another difference between being single and being married is finances. Being single controls money by oneself, and cost of single life is cheaper than married life. Kinds of insurances, types of taxes and everything that relate to life, is anxiety of being married. When a couple wants to get married each other, they always care about cost of their life. On the other hand, single persons are paid salary every month, and they spend their life by their money. Single persons do not need to worry much about finances. However, this case is not always right, sometimes it is reversed. Finally, the difference between being single and being married is relationships. Being single makes many relationships and has many friends. Life of being single is not bind of any relationship. However, that is a serious problem if single person do not have a good relationship. In contrast to being single, being married has family ties. That is a responsibility part of persons in family, but being married has a great moral strength. When people faces to some problems or feeling bad, the first thing which people always think to, is family. Being  married means having a family, and it is a best moral support. Being single never has these things. The love from friends is able to replace to love from family for a single person, but that thing is a big difference. I n conclusion, the differences between being single and being married are times, finances and relationships. Being single and being married have its advantages and disadvantages. Times are important thing to marriage life, but it is normal for being single. In addition, being single differ to being married, finances are big problems with being married while finances is easy for being single. Relationships are one of matter of persons who are interested in life of marriage. All of these things effect to persons who decide being married or being single. In my mind, later marriage is a best way for current economy life.

Supervisory Skills Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Supervisory Skills - Research Paper Example The leader will act as a mentor, coach and teacher to gain support for meeting productive outcomes and performance targets. â€Å"Authentic relationships evolve over time† (Starnes, Truhon & McCarthy, 2010, p.5). Motivational problems can be overcome through more visible interaction in the management environment and by allowing decentralized decision-making to occur where solutions are provided horizontally rather than top-down. This will improve a sense of social belonging and remove layers of power distance that can de-motivate and also improve the self-esteem that leads to better enthusiasm in job role function. The long-term plan hinges on success in using transformational leadership design to gain commitment and improve motivation. Once establishing the foundation of a positive corporate culture built on knowledge-sharing and team function, as well as emphasis on human resources development, the Quality Control department will undergo sweeping changes related to total quality management. Each director will utilize a balanced scorecard to measure individual performance and the performance of production as well as research and development, which will be reported to the VP. The total quality management approach will consist of the Delphi Method, a qualitative forecasting tool involving multiple stakeholders in which solutions are brainstormed recurrently until new processes or systems needed for improvement are identified (Rowe & Wright, 1999). The Delphi Method will improve relationship development among colleagues, improve knowledge transfer, and open the doors for innovation by providing multitudes of solutions to improve quality and performance in each director’s division. This will further emphasize cultural development and improve competitive advantage in human capital among competing firms in this industry. Reorganization is required only in the factory line, which must be

PROFESSIONAL LIABILITY AND EMPLOYEE RELATIONS Essay - 4

PROFESSIONAL LIABILITY AND EMPLOYEE RELATIONS - Essay Example These contracts use the laid down legislation to develop a binding agreement, which guides the employer and employee in their final period of interaction (Pozgar, 2012). This essay looks at the issues that employers and managers should consider when drafting settlement agreements with their employees in the context of a health organization. The agreement must consider the reasons behind the termination of employees. Different reasons will affect the nature of the contract that the employer enters with the terminated employee. For example, employees who are terminated due to breach of contract cannot enter into the same contract with those who are terminated due to other factors beyond their control. Furthermore, the decision of termination is a responsibility of a qualified manager who understands the risks associated with the termination (Pozgar, 2012). Compensation is one of the issues that the termination agreement should consider. The employer must consider paying the employee an amount of money that will compensate him or her for the termination. This especially happens when the reasons for the termination are not due to the inconsistencies and the incapability of the employee. If the reasons for termination are market driven, then the employer must consider the fate of the employee who has nothing to do with the turn of events, which is called the unemployment compensation (Hospital Employees’ Union, 2013) Insurance policies and taxation are other issues that the agreement should consider. Most of the workers in the health sector are insured against risks in the workplace and other risks in their lives. Therefore, the contract must consider the nature of the policies that employees had before their termination. The consideration should be as to whether the employee will continue enjoying protection or the contract will be cancelled. The settlement agreement

Freedom Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Freedom - Essay Example As a lawyer, John also had an impact in his hometown where he presided over the other lawyers as the Lord of Suffolk; however, it was not until 1629 when he decided to join the Massachusetts Bay Company after the king initiated the suppression of unconventional religion. Nonetheless, he figured out that the only way he could make an impact was if he was part of the government, leading to his election as the governor (Winthrop, 1). Appreciably, the dictatorial atmosphere in government and religion has a vast impact on the neighbors of Massachusetts; naturally, the formation of most of them resulted from the act of rebellion from the people against the ruling of the elders. A few years before his death, Winthrop gave a speech in one of the major courts challenging the government to fighting corruption and upholding justice as a foundation for the general welfare for all the people. After his death, Jon, Winthrop’s son, discovered a journal that he had been keeping for twenty yea rs prior to his demise; nonetheless, this was among the many historical accounts that he put in writing and that have an impact on politicians in the modern world. Nathaniel Bacon’s opposition of William Berkley’s way of ruling led to the historical Bacon’s Rebellion, which was among the few that had powerful armory; however, Bacon’s basis for the rebellion is understandable especially with the disorganization and multiple criticisms about the administrative procedures ((Kelly, 1). Moreover, Berkley enforced restrictions on trade warning people against selling their commodities to neighboring communities. These were core motivators, especially after people tried consulting him on the matter without him reacting or upholding their rights. Led by Nathaniel, the people of Virginia armed themselves set to attacking Berkley and his people that he supported so much. Just like John Winthrop, Anne was also a

Destination Branding Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Destination Branding - Essay Example This essay stresses that the importance of destination branding experiment may be better comprehended by understanding what would occur if it were not undertaken. Lack of branding will lead to the lack of awareness that such a destination exists. It is this awareness that prompts him to entertain the idea of a vacation to that destination in the initial consideration. Lack of branding also leads to lack any uniqueness, cultural, emotional or any kind of association with the destination and constitutes a low motivation to be there. In the global competing arena, where the consumer is spoiled for choice and is bombarded by the various options, create a brand for the destination and its characteristics is the only way to lure visitors. This paper makes a conclusion that however spectacular the scenery, however famous the culture; however grand the history, the most important measure of any destination remains the reality of how visitors are treated and how they are made to feel. The most beautiful landscape in the world will not compensate for an inability to make a visitor or guest feel wanted, welcome and delighted. Above all, the tourist needs to know that there is destination that seems to beckon him, is a joy to visit and be pampered and taking a vacation there becomes a vision to him. In the global context, this visibility can only be achieved by building a destination brand and this seems no longer an option but a necessity to survive.

The Impact of the London City Airport Expansion on the Surrounding Essay

The Impact of the London City Airport Expansion on the Surrounding Property Values - Essay Example It is the only Airport located just two miles from the site of the 2012 Olympic Games and three miles from Canary Wharf. As part of the expansion programme for it departure lounge, London City Airport spent  £30 million (US$60 million) for the construction of four new aircraft parking stands (Bonnassies, 2008). Basically, the said expansion project was eventually completed back in May 2008. Reg Ward, the Chief Executive of the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC), was the first person who developed strategic ways on how to increase the operational efficiency of the airport back in 1981 (London City Airport Consultative Committee, 2009). It was in 1987 when the London City Airport was granted for route licences from the CAA before it was officially opened. One year after the airport was opened to the public, LDDC managed to handle as much as 133,000 passengers within its first year of operation (London City Airport Consultative Committee, 2009). The runway of the airport was only 1,080 metres in length with a glide slope of 7.5 degrees. Due to the limited space, LDDC managed to serve only a few numbers of small-size aircraft. Back then, LDDC was offering its runway only to De Havilland Canada Dash 7 and the smaller Dornier Do 228 which are commonly used for passenger services, freight, and other surveillance and military purposes (London City Airport Consulta tive Committee, 2009b). To provide its service to larger aircraft types, LDDC decided to expand its runway in 1989. In 1990, LDDC was able to handle as much as 230,000 passengers (London City Airport Consultative Committee, 2009). However, the number of passengers significantly decreased after the incidence of the Gulf War. It was only until 1993 when the airport managed to increase the number of passengers up to 245,000 (London City Airport Consultative Committee, 2009). During the same year, LDDC’s extended

Patch 1,2 and 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Patch 1,2 and 3 - Essay Example People are, in most cases,compelled to learn more than one language at a time, the existing knowledge of a native language affects both the pace, and level that one learns a new language. Young learners always think in their native language and relay the information in the new language. This breaks a number of semantic rules governing the use of the new language and if not corrected in time, its effect may last to affect how he or she uses the new language. Additionally, the teacher of the new language and his native language influences the manner in which their students learn the new language. In the Western world, students of new language always seek the services of a native speaker of the new language or travel to a country of the new language to learn. In the developing world, students learn second hand languages taught by fellow natives. The teachers therefore break a number of rules and pass the broken languages to their students. This explains why the English spoken in a numbe r of African countries is either pronounced differently or infused will local pidgins. The student in the case study suffers from the influence of mother tongue too. From the way he writes, it is clear that he is not an English native speaker. French sounds like English in a number of ways, some of the French words sound and mean the same to other English words. However, the greatest difference between English and French is the French attach gender to most of its words and sentences. From the write up, it is evident that the writer is trying to keep up with the English language requirements but because he keeps thinking in French, he finds himself attaching a gender to some of the English words. A remedy to this is constant practice and the ability to detach from the use of a native language while learning a different language. It is never possible to abolish the use of the first language especially when learning another but learners need concentrate on the new language and use the semantic rules of the new language. This way, they minimize the number of grammatical mistakes they make on the new language. This also makes the learning a lot faster. Another key factor that affects a learner’s ability to learn and use a new language is age. This factor is debatable but most scholars concur that young learners usually master the rules of a new language faster than older learners do. In young age, people are not preoccupied with other businesses, as is the case in old age. Children will therefore concentrate more on the new language and master it faster. Additionally, this has also contributed to the fact that children interact more with their peers than adults do. It is in these interactions that they learn from their colleagues the new language and the rules that govern the usage of the new language. Despite the faster speed of learning a language at a younger age, it is also evident that young learners have a tendency of forgetting a language that they do not use faster. There is no remedy to this apart from continuous practice and the usage of the multiple languages one learned. The writer in this case is an adult learner. His age is best determined based on the issues he addresses in his article. Some of the themes he struggles to raise are those that children cannot possibly comprehend. Writing is different from speaking.

International business Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

International business - Case Study Example Trade involves exports and / or imports of goods and services. One of the most important facets of Wal-Mart business strategy is offering the best quality products at the lowest possible prices. To achieve this objective, Wal-Mart depends heavily on imports from countries such as China, where the productions costs are significantly lower, mainly on account of low-cost manpower. For example, its imports from China during 2003 amounted to $15 Billions (Case study, Rugman & Collinson, 2009, pp.30 ). In contrast to exports / imports, FDI is investment in foreign countries, with a view to set up operation bases to service the local / regional markets from such bases. FDI helps to expand markets and competitiveness due to many factors such as savings on freight costs, commanding scarce but locally available raw materials, catering to the Wal-Mart’s strategy of wide coverage of the US market with quality products offered at lowest prices soon found competitors as well as distracters. The factor of cheap imports from China and other Asian region sweat-shops could be easily copied by the competitors. Wal-Mart’s distracters targeted its reliance on imports from China at the cost of local producers and the adverse impact of its massive operations on the survival of small businesses, like the neighborhood stores. In the face of such developments, Wal-Mart had to find new markets for business expansion. The US, European Union (EU) and Japan form the triad of economic regions in the developed world and command a high standard of living and lion’s share in international business. The EU has 27 member countries, all of which are geographically and culturally close. EU has emerged as the world’s largest importer and exporter and its gross domestic product (GDP) is higher than that of the US or Japan (Rugman & Collinson, 2009, Ch.1). The political, economic, social and technological factors

How Africans Americans Have Worked to End Isolation Essay Example for Free

How Africans Americans Have Worked to End Isolation Essay Africans had fought very hard to obtain equal rights in the United States. After the civil war the country begin their journey in America History with period known as Reconstruction (Bowls 2011, 1. 1). There are several reasons why the nation went to war, and one of the most important was the right to continue the practice of slavery. From 1865 to the present, African Americans have worked to end their isolation through legislation, protest, and major contributions to society. In 1863 President Abraham Lincoln signs the Emancipation Proclamation. This proclamation did not free the slaves but it was the first step toward making this a reality (Bowles, 2011, 1. 1). The proclamation would only apply only to states in rebellion. The Emancipation proclamation is one of those stupendous facts in human history with marks not only an era in the progress of the nation, but an approach in history of the world (Journal of Blacks pg. 108-109). The civil war did not bring an end to racial hatred and violence in the south. Neither military leaders nor politicians can change the ingrained cultural beliefs of the people (Bowles, 2011 1. para10). After 1865 slavery could no longer structure relations between the races (1999, Segregation and Desegregation). The Black Codes codified some of these feelings when 1865 southern states government created legislation that restricted and control the lives of the ex-slaves (Bowel 2011 1. 1 para10). The Black Codes restricted African Americans to married other than their own race, they could not carried guns, they could only work on farms, and if they did not follow this rules they could put in jail or put them to enforced work which was the same as slavery (Bowles, 2011 1. para10). The president at the time supported this codes which made more difficult the lives of the ex-slaves. Meanwhile, many blacks who enlisted in the military encountered blatant discrimination while in the service and, them after risking their lives for the preservation of the free world, retuned to a society that continued to deem them second-class citizens (Levy, 1998). The only significant racial reform enacted by the federal government in the decade after the end of World War 11 was the desegregation of the armed forces order by President Truman in 1948. To some blacks, even this represented a pyrrhic victory (Levy, 1948). African Americans also suffer from segregation. â€Å"Segregation; is the practice by law or custom, of separating groups, spatially according to race, class, or ethnicity† (Segregation and Desegregation, 2001). Racial segregation began after the end of slavery, when new laws barred blacks from many occupations, restricted voting rights, and designated separate public facilities for black and white populations (Segregation and Desegregation, 2011). Segregation existed somewhat differently in the North and the South of the country. Different conditions in the North and South led to different kinds of social organization among African communities (Segregation and Desegregation, 2011). â€Å"Segregation in a legal sense began with laws separating blacks and whites in education† (Segregation, 2010). Although blacks paid taxes as whites, they did not receive funding for their schools and they had to rely on church and missionary organizations to create their own schools (segregation, 2010). A law that emerged was separate facilities for blacks in all areas, assigning African Americans a separate and degraded status in transportation, dining, places of entertainment, and even in cemeteries (Segregation, 2010). The customs and laws associated with segregation created a deeply entrenched culture of white supremacy, which radicalized every aspect of life in the South. The laws prevented blacks and whites from joining together in union meetings, political-reform organizations, or on a social level, thus creating a one-party (Democratic) â€Å"solid South† impervious to change. African Americans continually resisted segregation and white supremacy but with few Southern white allies (Segregation, 2010). The Civil Right Movement The biracial system in the South kept many African Americans impoverished and disenfranchised, it also created conditions that facilitated the development of a strong black middle class and cultural institutions. Black schools and especially the black church enabled the development of African American leadership, and became the base of the Civil Rights Movement. In the North, however, were run by white teachers and administrators and did not foster racial pride as many did in the South. For Northern blacks, then, civil rights issues focused on discrimination and unequal access rather than formal desegregation. In the South, the Civil Rights Movement focused primarily on ending segregation (Segregation and Desegregation 2011). The Civil Rights Movement emerged in the 1950s, when the number of middle-class and skilled blacks was almost forty percent of the Southern black population. The earliest victory came in 1954, when the U. S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education, that racially â€Å"separate educational facilities are inherently unequal† (Segregation and Desegregation 2011). The following year the court ordered that African Americans can attend to white school. The school systems did not accepted this and reacted with violence that the federal military often had to go to the schools and protect the black children who attempt to attend school (Segregation and Desegregation 2011). Because of this events the â€Å"Court-ordered desegregation prompted â€Å"white flight† from public schools in many areas, as families with the financial resources to do so enrolled their children in private schools or moved to mostly-white suburban school districts† (Segregation and Desegregation 2011). On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks, a middle-aged black seamstress boarded a Montgomery, Alabama bus to take her home. Several stops later the bus driver requests her to give up her sit to a white passenger. She refuses, the bus driver called the police and she was arrested. At the Police Station she told the officer â€Å"I didn’t think I should have to stand up, after I had paid my fare and occupied a seat I didn’t think I should have to give it up† (Levy, 1998). The effort to abolish other forms of segregation, initiated in 1955 when seamstress Rosa Parks refused to relinquish her seat in the white section of a Montgomery bus, continued through the 1960s. The movement was led by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. , who developed a philosophy of nonviolent activism based on principles of Christian belief and the passive resistance teachings of Indian independence leader Mahatma Gandhi and American philosopher Henry David Thoreau†(Segregation and Desegregation 2011). Martin Luther King, Jr. as the most prominent leader of the civil rights movement for equal rights for African Americans that took place during the 1950s and 1960s. Martin Luther King first became aware of racial segregation when, at the age of six, a white friend was not allowed to play with him anymore. Throughout his childhood and young adulthood he experienced segregation and racism: he and his family were required to sit in separate places in stores and on buses. King and other black children could not use the same swimming pools or public parks as white children (Martin Luther King Jr. 009). In 1954, Martin Luther King took a job as pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama. In 1955, after Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to yield her seat to a white man, the Montgomery civil rights community decided to hold a bus boycott to get rid of the law that black passengers had to sit at the back of the bus and yield seats to white passengers. They also decided to form a new organization and elect a new leader to include all the different people and groups who supported the boycott. King was asked to lead this new organization, the Montgomery Improvement Association, and he agreed (Martin Luther King Jr. 2009). African American had struggled through time fighting for their rights. They had come a long way obtaining the same rights as every other citizen in the United States. African Americans finally can walk freely in the country they had overcome adversity. Martin Luther King and Rosa Parks are only few that had help on the civil right movement and these people had been very important in history to abolish Segregation.

Effect of the Local Environment on Bees

Effect of the Local Environment on Bees Local Environment Europe The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. Bees have an important ecological role; they are insect pollinators providing a crucial service. Without insect pollination human diet would be very different to how we know it now. Declines in pollinators have been reported and by attempting to understand the how the local environment affects bee abundance and diversity it may be possible to prevent any further decline. Samples were collected at six sites across Europe in each site there was a disturbed landscape and a natural landscape and within each of these a hot and a cold area. Samples were collected, pinned and identified to genera and the Halictus measured. Analysis found that there was no significant difference in size between different countries, landscape and temperature. The number of individuals and the number of genera did not significantly differ between temperature, landscape and country however on a smaller country level there were differences in the numbers of individuals and genera at different landscapes. The number of bumblebees was affected by the landscape with more individuals found in the disturbed landscapes; it is possible that due to the foraging ability and feeding preferences that bumblebees are able to gain an advantage in a disturbed landscape. Different genera were found in different regions with high numbers of Panurgus and Panurginus found in Spain and Catalunya. The number of bumblebees was also found to be significantly related to latitude. These differences in composition in different areas could be seriously affected in the face of climate change. The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. 1: Background and importance â€Å"If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe then man would only have four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man.† Albert Einstein 1.1: The importance of bees Bees provide the critical ecosystem service of pollination (Kearns et al 1998). Insect pollination is essential for our life as we know it. 84% of crops in the EU depend on insect pollination (Williams 1994) and one third of our diet can be attributed to insect pollination, either directly or indirectly (McGregor 1976). Of the insect pollinators it is bees which provide the most pollination, bees which are highly adapted to flower visitation, have been confirmed to be pollinators for 72.7% of crop species and it is thought they could be responsible for the pollination of another 10.2% (Williams 1994, Roubik 1995). Declines in bees point towards serious consequences for natural ecosystem process and agricultural processes (Biesmeijer et al 2006). The declines being experienced on local and regional scales present a worrying situation with habitat loss, fragmentation, agricultural intensification and pesticide use causing declines in honey bees, solitary bees, wild bees and bumble bees (Steffan-Dewenter et al 2005). The greatest diversity of bees in the world is experienced in arid and semi-arid regions of the world including the Mediterranean regions of Southern Europe (Danforth 2007). Most of the bees in the world are solitary bees (National Research Council of the National Academies 2007) and of the solitary bees the majority of them are resource specialists, oligolectic (Wcislo and Cane 1996). Oligolectics are bee species which collect pollen from one genus or species but can collect nectar from a variety of plants, they are often referred to as specialists. Polylectic bee species are generalists; they can collect pollen from a variety of flowering plants and include the honeybee (Apis) and the bumblebee (Bombus). In theory the risk of extinction is elevated in oligolectic bees as their presence and distribution is limited by just one floral host (Zayed and Packer 2007). Work by Cane et al (2006) into urban habitat fragmentation showed the abundance and richness of oligolectic bees to have declined but not to have declined in the polylectic bees. Due to the important role of bees it is essential to understand the abundance and diversity of bees across the landscape and the local factors that affect them. By understanding the local factors affecting the diversity and abundance of bees it may be possible to effectively manage and conserve bees and help to prevent any further declines in diversity and abundance. 1.2: Landscape Much of the natural habitat in Europe has been lost and the habitats with the highest species richness are the remaining semi-natural areas (Pimentel et al 1992). The impact of disturbance on insect communities is not so extensively studied as the impact on vegetation, on the studies that are available results show that different insect groups respond differently to disturbance (Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke 2003). Study by Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke (2003) on the effect of habitat management and landscape on bees and wasps in orchards in Europe showed that the vegetation was more significantly affected by the management practices than the insects. Bee species richness is correlated with the percentage of grassland in the surrounding landscape (Dauber et al 2003, Hendrickx et al 2007, Steffan-Dewenter et al 2002). The bees in the study by Hendrickx et al (2007) showed not only a decline with distance from semi-natural patches but also a decline with increasing management practices. The other groups in the study experienced increased numbers with proximity to semi-natural habitat but no significant declines with increasing agricultural management. The results for bees can be attributed due to bees having such a strong dependence on floral resources (Tscharntke et al 1998). Low plant diversity with limited floral resources may not to be able to support a high diversity of insects thus resulting in lower insect diversity and the ability to support only the generalist species (Westphal et al 2003). Proximity to floral resources and nesting sites is important as foraging distances can be fairly small. Large bumblebees such as Bombus terrestris can forage distances up to 3000m, as foraging distances are related to body size, smaller bees may only be able to forage a few metres (Westphal et al 2006). In the tropical forests of Costa Rica pasture management and the floral resources showed to have no significant impact on the diversity or abundance of bees, however deforested countryside just metres away from the forest contained a different community composition (Brosi et al 2006). The complexity of landscapes means that the impact of disturbance can vary depending on the frequency, intensity and extent of the disturbance (Samways 2005). Moderate disturbance can actually increase the diversity of the area by opening up areas for colonisation by providing ecological niches and opportunities for rarer species (Caswell 1976, Connell 1978, Petraitis et al 1989). Alternately diversity could be lowered as the dominance of opportunistic species is increased (Margalef 1968). Bees depend on floral resources for nectar and pollen and can only travel certain distances from their nesting site to reach it, both flowers and nests need to be close by. Therefore declining floral resources, and declining suitable nest sites, as experienced in large scale disturbed areas, may result in the declining numbers and diversity of bees. 1.3: Microclimate- temperature The microclimate, the lowest two metres of the atmosphere (Stoutjesdijk and Barkman 1992), is the layer of the atmosphere where the majority of plants and animals live (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The soil surface (or other substance, for example forest or concrete) influences the heat and moisture budget of the surrounding atmosphere producing localised variations in the climatic conditions, for example temperature, windspeed and humidity. The relationship between plant and microclimate is a close one with plants affecting the climatic conditions around them and the microclimate affects the factors controlling the functioning of the plant including the availability of the products required for photosynthesis. Insects benefit from this interaction and due to the close mutalistic relationship between some plant and insect species, for example plants and pollinators, are dependent on a healthy relationship between microclimate and plants. An unsuitable microclimate will lead to the deterioration of plant life and eventual death of the plant and insects dependent on it. 1.4: Insects, temperature and body size In many insects body temperature is essential in order to gain flight. An insect needs to gain enough energy to fly; it needs to raise the thoracic temperature above the temperature of the environment (Bishop and Armbruster 1999) this can be achieved by basking and endothermy (producing heat in the muscles) (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The size of the insect plays a vital role in the ability to heat up and subsequently fly and forage. A study by Casey and Joos (1983) found that the proportion of heat lost from the thorax per time unit decreases as the body mass of the insect increases, therefore larger insects are slower at gaining and loosing heat. Bishop and Armbruster (1999) also concluded that the ability to raise temperature in order to fly increases with body size making bumblebees better thermoregulators than solitary bees. Even when looking at solitary bees larger solitary bees will be better at thermoregulation than smaller solitary bees. Foraging activity can be restricted by thermoregulation factors (Heinrich 1974) and not just over winter. In the summer months foraging at high latitudes and higher temperatures may prove to be difficult for larger insects with solitary bees reaping the floral rewards. Whilst in cooler areas at lower latitudes larger bees, such as bumblebees will have the advantage (Bishop and Armbruster 1999). Tropical bumblebees have been found to be the largest bees, an exception to the rest of the findings by Peat et al (2205). They found that the mean size of bumblebees varies between different climates with colder climates having a larger mean size than those of warmer climates. Size variation of bumblebees within a region was found not to be related to temperature but other factors, possibly to improve colony foraging with different sizes able to visit different flowers (Peat et al 2005). It is not just at different temperatures, different latitudes and different elevations that there are heat constraints on the species present but also a daily sequence. Heinrich (1976) observed bees visiting flower patches and noted the day sequence process. Large insects, such as large bumblebees, are able to achieve a body temperature high enough to fly at a lower temperature than a smaller insect, for example a small solitary bee. This then means that earlier in the day the bumblebee can begin to forage and last longer into the evening when the temperature of the environment begins to fall. However in the midday heat the bumblebee may become overheated and need to retreat and cease flying for a few hours. The small solitary bee although not able to start until later and unable to continue into the evening will be able to cope in the midday heat and continue to forage (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The temperature of the area determines the foraging activity of bees and will influence the bees present in the area. What is under-researched is the effect of very localised temperature has on the bees and size of bees present. 1.5: Climate The temperature of the environment does not only determine the body temperature of the insect but also the geographical range (Gates 1993). Over the past 30years shifts in the abundance and distribution of a variety of species have been witnessed due to climate change (Parmesan and Yohe 2003). Hickling et al (2006) studied the distributions of different taxonomic groups in Britain over the last 25years to examine any shifts in range that may have occurred. A shift in distribution upwards and northwards was found in most taxonomic groups with the latitude being a more significant factor than elevation. Alterations to geographic ranges will impact different organisms in different ways and at different times in their lifecycle. It is possible that the interactions between organisms could be severely affected and possibly even destroyed, in some instances resulting in the extinction of one or both of the species. With these shifts in distributions comes the increased possibility of species extinctions, one prediction for 2050 using a mid-range climate scenario showed 15-37% of species committed to extinction (Thomas et al 2004). In order to avoid the risk of extinction species will have to be able to keep up with the changing climate by migrating at fast enough rates however barriers such as mountains and fragmented, disturbed landscapes may hinder this migration (Pearson and Dawson 2003). General climate models which observe the possible consequences of climate change show a general pattern of the increasing of the Mediterranean summer drought (Gates 1993). As a result it is expected that a shift in species composition will occur and drought conditions will lead to reduced plant cover. This will inevitably impact many insect species including pollinators, such as bees, that will lose their source of nectar and pollen. Research suggests that resource specialists are likely to be the first to suffer declines as they rely on just one plant for their pollen (Cane et al 2006). Looking at the effect of local temperatures on abundance and richness may be able to give an indication of what will follow with global climate change and thus be an aid for planning and conservation measures. 2: Aims and Objectives Bees are essential for pollination and are the key to maintaining life as we know it. Reaching and maintaining the right temperature is essential for an insect’s flight, there is evidence that reaching this temperature is related to body size but does it vary with temperature within a microclimate? Does the local temperature affect the bee diversity and abundance and will this provide any insights into what may happen in the face of global climate change? Within Europe it has been reported that it is the remaining semi-natural habitats that contain the most species richness. If this is the case it would be expected that areas of human disturbance would experience a much lower diversity and abundance. In this project the aim is to examine the effect that the local conditions, temperature and landscape, have on the abundance and genera of bees in a selection of regions across Europe. Within this there are three main objectives to be examined: To determine if the local temperature affects the abundance and diversity of bees. To determine if the surrounding landscape, disturbed or natural, affects the diversity and abundance of bees. To establish whether the size of certain genera are significantly affected by the local environment. 3: Methodology 3.1: Site selection Samples of pollinators were collected in field sites throughout Europe in the summer of 2007 as part of the CITIRAT (Climate Interactions with Terrestrial plant Interactions a Risk Assessment Tool) project. The CITIRAT project is part of the wider EU ALARM (Assessing LArge scale Risks for biodiversity with tested Methods) project (http://www.alarmproject.net/alarm/). The field sites for the CITIRAT project were pre-determined by ALARM, with the core sites situated in different regions throughout Europe allowing the study of most of the climatic regions in Europe. For each of the core sites there are two sites measuring 4km by 4km within 50km of each other. One of the two sites being predominantly natural or semi-natural and the other site a disturbed landscape. The two focal sites have being selected so that the geological and environmental parameters are as similar as possible allowing the human disturbance to be the most distinguishing features between the sites. Figure 3.1.1 shows examples of the land cover in each category. Table 3.1.1: An example of the classification of disturbed and natural sites, categories taken from the level 3 CORINE 2000 land cover classification. Disturbed Non-irrigated arable land, pastures, discontinuous urban fabric, complex cultivation procedures, fruit trees and berry plantations, agro-forestry areas, olive groves, permanently irrigated land. Natural/semi-natural Mixed forest, coniferous forest, broadleaved forest, transitional woodland-scrub, sclerophyllous vegetation, natural grasslands. Using GIS analysis the temperature for each of the disturbed and natural areas was calculated using a model which combined the elevation, slope, aspect, average daytime temperature, clear sky solar radiation maps. This model then gave the temperatures for points throughout the landscape, the hottest 10% and coldest 10% of points were selected and ranked, the top two temperature points for both hot and cold were then determined and ready for fieldwork to begin. 3.2: Sampling method Each of the two landscapes (disturbed and natural) had two sampling rounds approximately 2 weeks apart. Within each sampling round two hot and two cold temperature sites were used (as predetermined by the GIS analysis). Each temperature spot had three cluster sets of pan traps, one white, one yellow and one blue. Each cluster contained five pan traps of a single colour. Each cluster was situated five metres apart in open, low vegetation at ground level. The pan traps were left out over a two day period in dry conditions with low wind and a temperature of greater than 15 ºC. Leaving pan traps out over a two day period eradicated any daily variation in bee species present due to daily temperature fluctuations. By using all three coloured pan traps bias was reduced as a range of colour preferences could be catered for (Leong and Thorp 1999). When the samples, preserved in alcohol, were returned to Leeds the samples were sorted taking note of the number of honeybees, number of bumble bees, number of other bees, number of hoverflies and the number of butterflies. Anything else that was collected in traps was discarded. The bumblebees and other bees were removed from the sample tubes, and were dried, pinned and labelled. The bees were then identified to genus level and the results recorded. Figure 3.3.1: Map of Europe showing the ALARM core sites. The yellow dots indicate the sites used in this analysis and their ‘country’ label. Adapted from an image available at: http://www.alarmproject.net. 3.3: Analytical method Samples were collected at sites all across Europe. Time and resource restraints meant that not all of the sites sampled could be pinned and identified for use in this study. The sites used were carefully selected with sites showing high variation in elevation and therefore temperature differences chosen. Figure 3.3.1 shows the European sites used in this project and table 3.3.1 shows the latitude and longitude of the sites. From here on these ‘sites’ will be called countries to avoid confusion. Table 3.3.1: Sites used with the latitude and Longitude Country Landscape Latitude Longitude Austria Disturbed 47.5205 14.1432 Austria Natural 48.0125 15.1620 Catalunya Disturbed 41.2620 1.7714 Catalunya Natural 41.2526 1.9006 Germany Disturbed 51.5491 9.7754 Germany Natural 51.4540 12.9410 Italy Disturbed 45.6202 12.4526 Italy Natural 45.7775 12.6088 Spain Disturbed 39.3153 -4.0661 Spain Natural 39.4133 -4.0650 UK Disturbed 51.5082 -1.5310 UK Natural 51.7650 -0.4585 To calculate the diversity for each of the conditions at each of the sites the Simpson’s diversity index, which is â€Å"one of the most meaningful and robust diversity measures†(Magurran 2004) was used. The index works by calculating the probability, that from a community of infinite size, two individuals will belong to the same species. The Simpson diversity index was expressed as 1-D therefore meaning that as the Simpson’s diversity decreases as does the diversity, this logical adaptation of the index mean that the diversity of the samples could easily be calculated and compared. In order to determine if the size of bees are affected by the local conditions one genus, Halictus was chosen due to them making up a large proportion of total individuals present. To measure the Halictus samples a random number table was used to determine which specimens should be measured. All of the specimens were females and from two countries, Spain and Germany. Digital callipers were used under a microscope to measure the width of the thorax, in-between the base of the wings. The numbers of Bombus’ were looked at as well as the size of the Halictus. Bombus’ are known to be (generally) a larger body size and better thermoregulators so provide a good genus to use as an indication of distribution related to the local environment factors. The information available for use in the statistical analysis was the number of individuals, the number of genera, the temperature (hot or cold), the landscape (disturbed or natural), the country, the sample round (1 or 2), the site (either 1 or 2), the diversity (Simpson’s 1-D), the number of bumblebees, the number of solitary bees and for a selection of sites the size of Halictus. The statistical analysis was carried out using R and Minitab for the principal component analysis. Excel was used for the production of some of the graphics. Not all the data was normally distributed, distributions were checked using the Shapiro-Wilk test. The analysis used was a mixed effects model but not all data meet the assumptions so where unavoidable non-parametric tests were used, a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL). 4: Results Nineteen Genera were identified; a list of these genera and authorities can be viewed in the appendix A. One genus could not be confirmed despite various opinions but is suspected that it might be Panurginus. 4.1: Individuals and genera Figure 4.1.1: The mean number of individuals per sample round, error bars indicate  ±1 SE. (t66= -5.804, p= A mixed effects model was used for the analysis of the individuals. The random effects were site, landscape and country. The standard deviation estimate for country was 0.528 showing that for the countries there was a variation from the mean, this may affect the outcome of the model. The only significant factor was sample round (t66=-6.456, p= There were no significant differences in individuals within temperature, landscape, sample round or any of the interaction terms. To alleviate the problem of countries having a great variation in the numbers of individuals the model was rerun with countries as a fixed factor. This reduced the variation of the random effects and recalculated the fixed effects. Sample round remained the only significant factor (t66= 5.804, p= The dataset for genera was non-parametric so the model used was the glmmPQL. A very low standard deviation estimate was given for each of the random factors (country= 4.2: Diversity The generalised mix effects model for diversity used Simpson’s 1-D values. The estimates of standard deviation for the random effect of country were extremely low, Figure 4.1.2: The mean diversity (Simpson’s 1-D) for each country. Error bars indicate  ± 1 SE. The diversity was not significantly for any of the factors, Standard deviation between countries was low at 4.3: Bumblebees and other bees The numbers of bumblebees (Bombus spp) were used in a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL) in order to determine if there were significant differences in the variation between temperature, landscape and sample round. The standard deviation of country was high at 1.376 showing that within the effect of country there was a lot of variation from the mean, thus contributing to the variation in bumblebees and possibly influencing the overall model. Of the fixed factors sample round and landscape were shown to be significant. Bumblebee numbers were significantly different for sample round (t79=-3.59, p=0.001, 95%CL) and landscape (t76= -3.314, p=0.001, 95%CL). Rerunning the model with country as a fixed factor changed the results. The standard deviation of the site was low at 81= -3.153, 95%CL), sample round (p=0.001, t81 = -3.394,) and also several countries were significantly different from the control country which was Austria. Catalunya (p=0.001, t81=-3.488, 95% CL), Italy (p=0.043, t81=-2.060, 95%CL), Spain (p=0.014, t81=-2.513, 95%CL) and the UK (p=0.002, t81=3.266, 95% CL). Germany was proven to not be significantly different from Austria (P=0.392, t81=-0.861, 95%CL) (figure 4.3.3). Figure 4.3.2: The number of bumblebees per landscape. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.153, p=0.002, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.1: The number of bumblebees per sample round. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.394, p=0.001, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.3: The mean number of bumblebees per country, error bars represents  ± 1 SE. The number of other bees (bees that were not honeybee or bumblebees) were taken and used in a mixed effect generalised linear model (glmmPQL). The model was initially run with the random factors of country and site. The standard deviation for country was 0.968 Effect of the Local Environment on Bees Effect of the Local Environment on Bees Local Environment Europe The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. Bees have an important ecological role; they are insect pollinators providing a crucial service. Without insect pollination human diet would be very different to how we know it now. Declines in pollinators have been reported and by attempting to understand the how the local environment affects bee abundance and diversity it may be possible to prevent any further decline. Samples were collected at six sites across Europe in each site there was a disturbed landscape and a natural landscape and within each of these a hot and a cold area. Samples were collected, pinned and identified to genera and the Halictus measured. Analysis found that there was no significant difference in size between different countries, landscape and temperature. The number of individuals and the number of genera did not significantly differ between temperature, landscape and country however on a smaller country level there were differences in the numbers of individuals and genera at different landscapes. The number of bumblebees was affected by the landscape with more individuals found in the disturbed landscapes; it is possible that due to the foraging ability and feeding preferences that bumblebees are able to gain an advantage in a disturbed landscape. Different genera were found in different regions with high numbers of Panurgus and Panurginus found in Spain and Catalunya. The number of bumblebees was also found to be significantly related to latitude. These differences in composition in different areas could be seriously affected in the face of climate change. The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. 1: Background and importance â€Å"If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe then man would only have four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man.† Albert Einstein 1.1: The importance of bees Bees provide the critical ecosystem service of pollination (Kearns et al 1998). Insect pollination is essential for our life as we know it. 84% of crops in the EU depend on insect pollination (Williams 1994) and one third of our diet can be attributed to insect pollination, either directly or indirectly (McGregor 1976). Of the insect pollinators it is bees which provide the most pollination, bees which are highly adapted to flower visitation, have been confirmed to be pollinators for 72.7% of crop species and it is thought they could be responsible for the pollination of another 10.2% (Williams 1994, Roubik 1995). Declines in bees point towards serious consequences for natural ecosystem process and agricultural processes (Biesmeijer et al 2006). The declines being experienced on local and regional scales present a worrying situation with habitat loss, fragmentation, agricultural intensification and pesticide use causing declines in honey bees, solitary bees, wild bees and bumble bees (Steffan-Dewenter et al 2005). The greatest diversity of bees in the world is experienced in arid and semi-arid regions of the world including the Mediterranean regions of Southern Europe (Danforth 2007). Most of the bees in the world are solitary bees (National Research Council of the National Academies 2007) and of the solitary bees the majority of them are resource specialists, oligolectic (Wcislo and Cane 1996). Oligolectics are bee species which collect pollen from one genus or species but can collect nectar from a variety of plants, they are often referred to as specialists. Polylectic bee species are generalists; they can collect pollen from a variety of flowering plants and include the honeybee (Apis) and the bumblebee (Bombus). In theory the risk of extinction is elevated in oligolectic bees as their presence and distribution is limited by just one floral host (Zayed and Packer 2007). Work by Cane et al (2006) into urban habitat fragmentation showed the abundance and richness of oligolectic bees to have declined but not to have declined in the polylectic bees. Due to the important role of bees it is essential to understand the abundance and diversity of bees across the landscape and the local factors that affect them. By understanding the local factors affecting the diversity and abundance of bees it may be possible to effectively manage and conserve bees and help to prevent any further declines in diversity and abundance. 1.2: Landscape Much of the natural habitat in Europe has been lost and the habitats with the highest species richness are the remaining semi-natural areas (Pimentel et al 1992). The impact of disturbance on insect communities is not so extensively studied as the impact on vegetation, on the studies that are available results show that different insect groups respond differently to disturbance (Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke 2003). Study by Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke (2003) on the effect of habitat management and landscape on bees and wasps in orchards in Europe showed that the vegetation was more significantly affected by the management practices than the insects. Bee species richness is correlated with the percentage of grassland in the surrounding landscape (Dauber et al 2003, Hendrickx et al 2007, Steffan-Dewenter et al 2002). The bees in the study by Hendrickx et al (2007) showed not only a decline with distance from semi-natural patches but also a decline with increasing management practices. The other groups in the study experienced increased numbers with proximity to semi-natural habitat but no significant declines with increasing agricultural management. The results for bees can be attributed due to bees having such a strong dependence on floral resources (Tscharntke et al 1998). Low plant diversity with limited floral resources may not to be able to support a high diversity of insects thus resulting in lower insect diversity and the ability to support only the generalist species (Westphal et al 2003). Proximity to floral resources and nesting sites is important as foraging distances can be fairly small. Large bumblebees such as Bombus terrestris can forage distances up to 3000m, as foraging distances are related to body size, smaller bees may only be able to forage a few metres (Westphal et al 2006). In the tropical forests of Costa Rica pasture management and the floral resources showed to have no significant impact on the diversity or abundance of bees, however deforested countryside just metres away from the forest contained a different community composition (Brosi et al 2006). The complexity of landscapes means that the impact of disturbance can vary depending on the frequency, intensity and extent of the disturbance (Samways 2005). Moderate disturbance can actually increase the diversity of the area by opening up areas for colonisation by providing ecological niches and opportunities for rarer species (Caswell 1976, Connell 1978, Petraitis et al 1989). Alternately diversity could be lowered as the dominance of opportunistic species is increased (Margalef 1968). Bees depend on floral resources for nectar and pollen and can only travel certain distances from their nesting site to reach it, both flowers and nests need to be close by. Therefore declining floral resources, and declining suitable nest sites, as experienced in large scale disturbed areas, may result in the declining numbers and diversity of bees. 1.3: Microclimate- temperature The microclimate, the lowest two metres of the atmosphere (Stoutjesdijk and Barkman 1992), is the layer of the atmosphere where the majority of plants and animals live (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The soil surface (or other substance, for example forest or concrete) influences the heat and moisture budget of the surrounding atmosphere producing localised variations in the climatic conditions, for example temperature, windspeed and humidity. The relationship between plant and microclimate is a close one with plants affecting the climatic conditions around them and the microclimate affects the factors controlling the functioning of the plant including the availability of the products required for photosynthesis. Insects benefit from this interaction and due to the close mutalistic relationship between some plant and insect species, for example plants and pollinators, are dependent on a healthy relationship between microclimate and plants. An unsuitable microclimate will lead to the deterioration of plant life and eventual death of the plant and insects dependent on it. 1.4: Insects, temperature and body size In many insects body temperature is essential in order to gain flight. An insect needs to gain enough energy to fly; it needs to raise the thoracic temperature above the temperature of the environment (Bishop and Armbruster 1999) this can be achieved by basking and endothermy (producing heat in the muscles) (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The size of the insect plays a vital role in the ability to heat up and subsequently fly and forage. A study by Casey and Joos (1983) found that the proportion of heat lost from the thorax per time unit decreases as the body mass of the insect increases, therefore larger insects are slower at gaining and loosing heat. Bishop and Armbruster (1999) also concluded that the ability to raise temperature in order to fly increases with body size making bumblebees better thermoregulators than solitary bees. Even when looking at solitary bees larger solitary bees will be better at thermoregulation than smaller solitary bees. Foraging activity can be restricted by thermoregulation factors (Heinrich 1974) and not just over winter. In the summer months foraging at high latitudes and higher temperatures may prove to be difficult for larger insects with solitary bees reaping the floral rewards. Whilst in cooler areas at lower latitudes larger bees, such as bumblebees will have the advantage (Bishop and Armbruster 1999). Tropical bumblebees have been found to be the largest bees, an exception to the rest of the findings by Peat et al (2205). They found that the mean size of bumblebees varies between different climates with colder climates having a larger mean size than those of warmer climates. Size variation of bumblebees within a region was found not to be related to temperature but other factors, possibly to improve colony foraging with different sizes able to visit different flowers (Peat et al 2005). It is not just at different temperatures, different latitudes and different elevations that there are heat constraints on the species present but also a daily sequence. Heinrich (1976) observed bees visiting flower patches and noted the day sequence process. Large insects, such as large bumblebees, are able to achieve a body temperature high enough to fly at a lower temperature than a smaller insect, for example a small solitary bee. This then means that earlier in the day the bumblebee can begin to forage and last longer into the evening when the temperature of the environment begins to fall. However in the midday heat the bumblebee may become overheated and need to retreat and cease flying for a few hours. The small solitary bee although not able to start until later and unable to continue into the evening will be able to cope in the midday heat and continue to forage (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The temperature of the area determines the foraging activity of bees and will influence the bees present in the area. What is under-researched is the effect of very localised temperature has on the bees and size of bees present. 1.5: Climate The temperature of the environment does not only determine the body temperature of the insect but also the geographical range (Gates 1993). Over the past 30years shifts in the abundance and distribution of a variety of species have been witnessed due to climate change (Parmesan and Yohe 2003). Hickling et al (2006) studied the distributions of different taxonomic groups in Britain over the last 25years to examine any shifts in range that may have occurred. A shift in distribution upwards and northwards was found in most taxonomic groups with the latitude being a more significant factor than elevation. Alterations to geographic ranges will impact different organisms in different ways and at different times in their lifecycle. It is possible that the interactions between organisms could be severely affected and possibly even destroyed, in some instances resulting in the extinction of one or both of the species. With these shifts in distributions comes the increased possibility of species extinctions, one prediction for 2050 using a mid-range climate scenario showed 15-37% of species committed to extinction (Thomas et al 2004). In order to avoid the risk of extinction species will have to be able to keep up with the changing climate by migrating at fast enough rates however barriers such as mountains and fragmented, disturbed landscapes may hinder this migration (Pearson and Dawson 2003). General climate models which observe the possible consequences of climate change show a general pattern of the increasing of the Mediterranean summer drought (Gates 1993). As a result it is expected that a shift in species composition will occur and drought conditions will lead to reduced plant cover. This will inevitably impact many insect species including pollinators, such as bees, that will lose their source of nectar and pollen. Research suggests that resource specialists are likely to be the first to suffer declines as they rely on just one plant for their pollen (Cane et al 2006). Looking at the effect of local temperatures on abundance and richness may be able to give an indication of what will follow with global climate change and thus be an aid for planning and conservation measures. 2: Aims and Objectives Bees are essential for pollination and are the key to maintaining life as we know it. Reaching and maintaining the right temperature is essential for an insect’s flight, there is evidence that reaching this temperature is related to body size but does it vary with temperature within a microclimate? Does the local temperature affect the bee diversity and abundance and will this provide any insights into what may happen in the face of global climate change? Within Europe it has been reported that it is the remaining semi-natural habitats that contain the most species richness. If this is the case it would be expected that areas of human disturbance would experience a much lower diversity and abundance. In this project the aim is to examine the effect that the local conditions, temperature and landscape, have on the abundance and genera of bees in a selection of regions across Europe. Within this there are three main objectives to be examined: To determine if the local temperature affects the abundance and diversity of bees. To determine if the surrounding landscape, disturbed or natural, affects the diversity and abundance of bees. To establish whether the size of certain genera are significantly affected by the local environment. 3: Methodology 3.1: Site selection Samples of pollinators were collected in field sites throughout Europe in the summer of 2007 as part of the CITIRAT (Climate Interactions with Terrestrial plant Interactions a Risk Assessment Tool) project. The CITIRAT project is part of the wider EU ALARM (Assessing LArge scale Risks for biodiversity with tested Methods) project (http://www.alarmproject.net/alarm/). The field sites for the CITIRAT project were pre-determined by ALARM, with the core sites situated in different regions throughout Europe allowing the study of most of the climatic regions in Europe. For each of the core sites there are two sites measuring 4km by 4km within 50km of each other. One of the two sites being predominantly natural or semi-natural and the other site a disturbed landscape. The two focal sites have being selected so that the geological and environmental parameters are as similar as possible allowing the human disturbance to be the most distinguishing features between the sites. Figure 3.1.1 shows examples of the land cover in each category. Table 3.1.1: An example of the classification of disturbed and natural sites, categories taken from the level 3 CORINE 2000 land cover classification. Disturbed Non-irrigated arable land, pastures, discontinuous urban fabric, complex cultivation procedures, fruit trees and berry plantations, agro-forestry areas, olive groves, permanently irrigated land. Natural/semi-natural Mixed forest, coniferous forest, broadleaved forest, transitional woodland-scrub, sclerophyllous vegetation, natural grasslands. Using GIS analysis the temperature for each of the disturbed and natural areas was calculated using a model which combined the elevation, slope, aspect, average daytime temperature, clear sky solar radiation maps. This model then gave the temperatures for points throughout the landscape, the hottest 10% and coldest 10% of points were selected and ranked, the top two temperature points for both hot and cold were then determined and ready for fieldwork to begin. 3.2: Sampling method Each of the two landscapes (disturbed and natural) had two sampling rounds approximately 2 weeks apart. Within each sampling round two hot and two cold temperature sites were used (as predetermined by the GIS analysis). Each temperature spot had three cluster sets of pan traps, one white, one yellow and one blue. Each cluster contained five pan traps of a single colour. Each cluster was situated five metres apart in open, low vegetation at ground level. The pan traps were left out over a two day period in dry conditions with low wind and a temperature of greater than 15 ºC. Leaving pan traps out over a two day period eradicated any daily variation in bee species present due to daily temperature fluctuations. By using all three coloured pan traps bias was reduced as a range of colour preferences could be catered for (Leong and Thorp 1999). When the samples, preserved in alcohol, were returned to Leeds the samples were sorted taking note of the number of honeybees, number of bumble bees, number of other bees, number of hoverflies and the number of butterflies. Anything else that was collected in traps was discarded. The bumblebees and other bees were removed from the sample tubes, and were dried, pinned and labelled. The bees were then identified to genus level and the results recorded. Figure 3.3.1: Map of Europe showing the ALARM core sites. The yellow dots indicate the sites used in this analysis and their ‘country’ label. Adapted from an image available at: http://www.alarmproject.net. 3.3: Analytical method Samples were collected at sites all across Europe. Time and resource restraints meant that not all of the sites sampled could be pinned and identified for use in this study. The sites used were carefully selected with sites showing high variation in elevation and therefore temperature differences chosen. Figure 3.3.1 shows the European sites used in this project and table 3.3.1 shows the latitude and longitude of the sites. From here on these ‘sites’ will be called countries to avoid confusion. Table 3.3.1: Sites used with the latitude and Longitude Country Landscape Latitude Longitude Austria Disturbed 47.5205 14.1432 Austria Natural 48.0125 15.1620 Catalunya Disturbed 41.2620 1.7714 Catalunya Natural 41.2526 1.9006 Germany Disturbed 51.5491 9.7754 Germany Natural 51.4540 12.9410 Italy Disturbed 45.6202 12.4526 Italy Natural 45.7775 12.6088 Spain Disturbed 39.3153 -4.0661 Spain Natural 39.4133 -4.0650 UK Disturbed 51.5082 -1.5310 UK Natural 51.7650 -0.4585 To calculate the diversity for each of the conditions at each of the sites the Simpson’s diversity index, which is â€Å"one of the most meaningful and robust diversity measures†(Magurran 2004) was used. The index works by calculating the probability, that from a community of infinite size, two individuals will belong to the same species. The Simpson diversity index was expressed as 1-D therefore meaning that as the Simpson’s diversity decreases as does the diversity, this logical adaptation of the index mean that the diversity of the samples could easily be calculated and compared. In order to determine if the size of bees are affected by the local conditions one genus, Halictus was chosen due to them making up a large proportion of total individuals present. To measure the Halictus samples a random number table was used to determine which specimens should be measured. All of the specimens were females and from two countries, Spain and Germany. Digital callipers were used under a microscope to measure the width of the thorax, in-between the base of the wings. The numbers of Bombus’ were looked at as well as the size of the Halictus. Bombus’ are known to be (generally) a larger body size and better thermoregulators so provide a good genus to use as an indication of distribution related to the local environment factors. The information available for use in the statistical analysis was the number of individuals, the number of genera, the temperature (hot or cold), the landscape (disturbed or natural), the country, the sample round (1 or 2), the site (either 1 or 2), the diversity (Simpson’s 1-D), the number of bumblebees, the number of solitary bees and for a selection of sites the size of Halictus. The statistical analysis was carried out using R and Minitab for the principal component analysis. Excel was used for the production of some of the graphics. Not all the data was normally distributed, distributions were checked using the Shapiro-Wilk test. The analysis used was a mixed effects model but not all data meet the assumptions so where unavoidable non-parametric tests were used, a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL). 4: Results Nineteen Genera were identified; a list of these genera and authorities can be viewed in the appendix A. One genus could not be confirmed despite various opinions but is suspected that it might be Panurginus. 4.1: Individuals and genera Figure 4.1.1: The mean number of individuals per sample round, error bars indicate  ±1 SE. (t66= -5.804, p= A mixed effects model was used for the analysis of the individuals. The random effects were site, landscape and country. The standard deviation estimate for country was 0.528 showing that for the countries there was a variation from the mean, this may affect the outcome of the model. The only significant factor was sample round (t66=-6.456, p= There were no significant differences in individuals within temperature, landscape, sample round or any of the interaction terms. To alleviate the problem of countries having a great variation in the numbers of individuals the model was rerun with countries as a fixed factor. This reduced the variation of the random effects and recalculated the fixed effects. Sample round remained the only significant factor (t66= 5.804, p= The dataset for genera was non-parametric so the model used was the glmmPQL. A very low standard deviation estimate was given for each of the random factors (country= 4.2: Diversity The generalised mix effects model for diversity used Simpson’s 1-D values. The estimates of standard deviation for the random effect of country were extremely low, Figure 4.1.2: The mean diversity (Simpson’s 1-D) for each country. Error bars indicate  ± 1 SE. The diversity was not significantly for any of the factors, Standard deviation between countries was low at 4.3: Bumblebees and other bees The numbers of bumblebees (Bombus spp) were used in a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL) in order to determine if there were significant differences in the variation between temperature, landscape and sample round. The standard deviation of country was high at 1.376 showing that within the effect of country there was a lot of variation from the mean, thus contributing to the variation in bumblebees and possibly influencing the overall model. Of the fixed factors sample round and landscape were shown to be significant. Bumblebee numbers were significantly different for sample round (t79=-3.59, p=0.001, 95%CL) and landscape (t76= -3.314, p=0.001, 95%CL). Rerunning the model with country as a fixed factor changed the results. The standard deviation of the site was low at 81= -3.153, 95%CL), sample round (p=0.001, t81 = -3.394,) and also several countries were significantly different from the control country which was Austria. Catalunya (p=0.001, t81=-3.488, 95% CL), Italy (p=0.043, t81=-2.060, 95%CL), Spain (p=0.014, t81=-2.513, 95%CL) and the UK (p=0.002, t81=3.266, 95% CL). Germany was proven to not be significantly different from Austria (P=0.392, t81=-0.861, 95%CL) (figure 4.3.3). Figure 4.3.2: The number of bumblebees per landscape. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.153, p=0.002, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.1: The number of bumblebees per sample round. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.394, p=0.001, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.3: The mean number of bumblebees per country, error bars represents  ± 1 SE. The number of other bees (bees that were not honeybee or bumblebees) were taken and used in a mixed effect generalised linear model (glmmPQL). The model was initially run with the random factors of country and site. The standard deviation for country was 0.968

America The Unusual by John W Kingdon Essay -- John Kingdon America

America The Unusual by John W Kingdon The government of the United States of America is very unique. While many Americans complain about high taxes and Big Brother keeping too close an eye, the truth is that American government, compared to most foreign democracies, is very limited in power and scope. One area American government differs greatly from others is its scope of public policy. Americans desire limited public policy, a result of several components of American ideology, the most important being our desire for individuality and equal opportunity for all citizens. There are many possible explanations for the reason Americans think this way, including the personality of the immigrants who fled here, our physical isolation from other countries, and the diversity of the American population. The main ideal that keeps public policy in America extremely limited compared to other democracies is the desire for less government, a more limited government. The strong American beliefs in individualism and equality result in this desire for limited government, and thus limited public policy. American government programs are much less ambitious than those of other industrialized democratic nations. Programs in health, welfare, housing, transportaion, and many other areas are much smaller and less ambitious (Kingdon: 44). This is a direct result of the American desire for limited government. Americans don't want large programs in these areas because they more or less fear big government and believe it is inefficient and wasteful. Americans lean towards a desire for equal oppurtunity as opposed to equal results, and thus believe government should stay clear and let people either succeed or fail on their own. They believe that successful individuals are simply the ones who ac hieved more with the opportunities they were given, and that it's the job of the government to keep these opportunities equal for all, and not its job to see that everyone ends up successful. By taking the focus away from equality of results, America has become the victim of large income disparities as compared to other countries. In 1990, American households in the top decile of the income distribution had disposable incomes that were nearly six times greater than households in the bottom decile. Most other large industrialized countries showed upper incomes o... ...ass dominated and often owned most or all of the working class property (Kingdon: 69). These American workers, much more individual, were far less likely to favor a big government system where individual rights are sacrificed for a more balanced social structure. As far as Kingdon's argument that America needs more pragmatism to moderate the commitment to American ideals, I would agree that this would result in a government that better served all Americans. However, I don't think there is any possible way the United States can change the course it is on now. One problem that needs to be faced is the deterioration of the environment, and as Kingdon mentioned, increasing the gas tax would definitely cut down on the pollution. However, if a public official actually announced a new gas tax plan to cut down on emmissions, his political career would come to a crashing halt! Americans are too engrained with the ideal of individuality. Why should we care about how clean the air is when we have kids to feed and mortgages to pay? The focus is on the individual, not the community. Works Cited: Kingdon, John W. America The Unusual. Boston: Worth Publishers, Inc. 1999.

Differences Between Business Strategies and Functional Tactics Essay ex

Differences Between Business Strategies and Functional Tactics 1. FUNCTIONAL TACTICS Functional tactics are the key, routine activities that must be undertaken in each functional area that is human resource management, marketing, finance, production/operations and research and development to provide the business ‘s products and services. Hence functional tactics translate thought (grand strategy) into action designed to accomplish specific short- term objectives. Every value chain activity in a company executes functional tactics that support the business’s strategy and help accomplish strategic objectives. 1.1 Differences Between Business Strategies and Functional Tactics - Functional tactics are different from business or corporate strategies in three fundamental ways: i. Time horizon. ii. Specificity. iii. Participants who develop them. Time Horizon - Functional tactics identify activities to be undertaken â€Å"now† or in the immediate future. Business strategies focus on the firm’s posture three to five years out. - The shorter time horizon of functional tactics is critical to the successful implementation of a business strategy for two reasons. i. First, it focuses the attention of functional managers on what needs to be done now to make the business strategy work. ii. Secondly, it allows functional managers to adjust to changing current conditions. Specificity Functional tactics are more specific than business strategies. Business strategies provide general direction. Functional tactics identify the specific activities that are to be undertaken in each functional area and thus allow operating managers to work out how their unit is expected to pursue short-term objectives. Specificity in functional tactics contributes to successful implementation by: - Helping ensure that functional managers know what needs to be done and can focus on accomplishing results. - Clarifying for top management how functional managers intend to accomplish the business strategy, which increases top management’s confidence in and sense of control over the business strategy. - Facilitating coordination among operating units within the firm by clarifying areas of interdependence and potential conflict. Participants Different people participate in strat... ... Beecham Kenya 2000 - 3. Flat organizations – Microsoft and dotcom companies - - 4. Increased responsiveness to customers NB. BPR requires maintenance of Key Performance Indicators on Quality, Lead time, Cost and Service. CONSEQUENCES - As BPR efforts progress, one of the first phenomena is excess capacity. As processes are re-engineered, even more capacity is discovered. The most frequent response is downsizing. - BPR suggests that old practices must be â€Å"obliterated† and new processes designed from scratch to fully leverage new technologies and business realities. In practice, few managers have the luxury of re-designing their processes or organizations from â€Å"clean sheet of paper† - people, equipment and business knowledge cannot be so easily scrapped. Furthermore, organizational change almost inevitability becomes a learning process in which unanticipated obstacles and opportunities emerge. Reference: - Pearce & Robinson – Strategic Management - Readings on bus 6020 - Henry J. Johansson – Business Processing Engineering

Happiness: A Review and Critical Evaluation of Culture and Well-Being E

Ethnic Identity and Well-Being Summary. The purpose of this research is to attain a better understanding of the potentially protective effects of ethnic identity by observing the daily stressful demands of Chinese and Mexican adolescents through a daily diary study (Kiang, Yip, Gonzales-Backen, Witkow, &Fuligni, 2006). The researchers hypothesize that ethnic identity will protect against the negative effect of normative stressors (Kiang et al., 2006). Happiness was measured by factors that maximize quality of life and minimize anxiety through the analysis of ethnic regard, ethnic centrality and the interaction of the two and their affect on well-being (Kiang et al., 2006). The study focused on ethnic identity, self-esteem, stressful demands and daily well being using various scales and a daily diary checklist. The 2 week study consisted of 415 participants of Mexican and Chinese background in the 9th grade from the Los Angeles metropolitan area recruited from 3 high schools (Kiang et al., 2006). Ethnic iden tity was found to play a role in shaping who we are by increasing happiness and reducing anxiety in students with higher ethnic regard (Kiang et al., 2006). These results indicate a direct psychological benefit from holding positive perceptions of one’s ethnicity (Kiang et al., 2006). Evaluation. Consumption and Happiness Summary. The author proposes a theory based on previously tested research hypotheses on the relationship between consumption and selective well-being (SWB) on national and international levels (Ahuvia, 2002). Ahuvia (2002) proposes that SWB is increased by higher standards of living which create a cultural environment where people maximize their personal happiness by minimizing their social ob... ...adapt into men’s rolls, while men stay true to theirs. A study of such immense proportions and complexity has much room for error and thus room for improvement. The researchers should take into account various age groups and participants who are not on college campuses as they are not always a reflection of the society as a whole. Also, in addition to a questionnaire, a peer-review about the participant would be useful in order to more accurately obtain a holistic depiction the participant especially in cultures where pride is enhanced or suppressed. Future research in this area should be promising as women stepping out of homes and into the workforce is more common now than ever. The implications of these actions on the future of our society and its well-being could be better understood through study of the emotional affect of gender roles and culture.

Whistleblowing and the Consequences

Whistleblowing is an act that has become more prevalent in the corporate and private sectors. A whistleblower is described by Liuzzo (2013) as â€Å"†¦a person who reveals to a governmental authority, or to news media, confidential information concerning some wrongdoing or conduct that he or she regards as unethical† (p. 28). Some of the most notable cases in United States history have involved corporations, utility companies and the President. Some cases have been so extensive that they have brought about the collapse of corporate giants and even garnered the resignation of the President prior to his impeachment.The following will outline some notable cases, reasons why some people decide to â€Å"blow the whistle† and steps that the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) has taken to secure the rights of those who report violations in the workplace. With greater frequency, internal organization constituents such as employees and board members are repo rting issues of wrongdoing by their companies, instead of the reports coming from external auditing agencies (Mesmer-Magnus & Viswesvaran, 2005, p. 277).Whistleblowing is further defined as, â€Å"the disclosure by organization members (former or current) of illegal, immoral, or illegitimate practices under the control of their employers, to persons or organizations that may be able to effect action’’ (as cited in Mesmer-Magnus & Viswesvaran, 2005). Companies try to anticipate the possibility of unfaithfulness by demanding employees sign an employment contract or non-disclosure agreement, which would render the disclosure of company business a serious offense. Employees who feel an unjust action is taking place within their organization have two channels to approach to address the issues.An internal channel consists of reporting the offense to company management so that they have the opportunity to research and contend with the offense(s). This is the most beneficial to any organization as it allows them to determine solutions and their internal issues stay safeguarded. Instead of lengthy investigations and legal troubles, companies could save thousands of dollars if the employee brings to light an issue internally to management, which provides the information to the people who are best able to resolve the situation.Although internal channels are best for organizations, they  may not be the best option for the employee to ensure compliance. External channels would include news media and government officials. People who decide to use the external route are considered whistleblowers. Organizations are least likely to welcome this form of disclosure, as their profits will likely plummet while the bad press spreads. Some employees go this route without discussing the issues with corporate management because they do not know who to talk to or they feel that their concerns will not be addressed. People also go behind their employer’s back bec ause they are afraid of retaliation and being labeled a trader by co-workers.The use of the word whistleblowing actually goes back more than 100 years and had nothing to do with corporate espionage or wrongdoing. The term came about in 1863 in the federal government’s False Claims Act (Eaton & Akers, 2007). The Act was initially enacted to incent consumers to report acts of wrongdoing against the government. According to Eaton and Akers (2007), Congress revived the Act in 1986 and retaliation legislation was added. The Whistleblower Protection Act of 1989 strengthens the protection for employees who disclose waste and fraud.In 2002, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) was added after the collapse of Enron to hold publicly held corporations accountable for their actions. Whistleblowing statutes may vary from state to state. There are some states that only allow protection to a whistleblower if he or she is a public employee or is working for a government contractor (Whistleblower, 20 08). Some statutes allow for only the person blowing the whistle to have protection against employer retaliation, while others allow co-workers that are supporting the whistleblower in their effort protection.This is why it is vital to research the law within the state the injustice occurred. Whistleblowing cases have been steadily increasing year over year since an additional 21 federal laws have been put into place to coincide with the OSH Act 1970. Each law outlines what is considered a discriminatory act and the deadlines around filing a complaint. Due to the protection that these laws provide, more and more people are coming forward and disclosing issues within their knowledge. OHSA protection means that companies cannot take â€Å"adverse actions† against employees for uncovering the truth (Occupational  Safety & Health Administration, 2012).These actions include, but are not limited to firing, demoting, harassing threats, and reducing pay and/or overtime. Constant up dates to whistleblowing laws are allowing more industries to outline the rights of those who are thinking about disclosing misdeeds. Violations that are being reported include issues with airline and workplace safety, consumer products, food industry safety, and securities fraud. As of March 31, 2012, OHSA has reported a 139% increase in yearly reported cases from 2005 through 2011 (Occupational Safety & Health Administration, 2012).During the same period, only 2% of the cases determined were given merit, 22% were settled and the remaining 77% were either dismissed or withdrawn. These statistics lend credibility to the determination of the people who are blowing the whistle and trying to make the world a safer place for all. Although the constant updates to the laws are beneficial, in come cases anonymity would be advantageous for the whistleblower. The implementation of a whistleblowing policy within companies, organizations and schools is encouraged to avoid damaging public attent ion and loss of internal morale.The Association of Certified Fraud Examiners compiles data every other year on fraud cases both in the United States and internationally. The 2012 â€Å"Report to the Nations on Fraud and Abuse† provides the following statistics for those organizations surveyed between January 2010 and December 2011: (1) 5% of annual revenues are lost to fraud each year, (2) The medium loss to fraud was $140,000, with one-fifth of the cases involving over $1 million, (3) Most frauds occurred for 18 months before detection, and (4) Most frauds were detected through employee tips (Association of Certified Fraud Examiners, 2012).A 5% loss to fraud each year is far from an insignificant amount to a company, and the statistic proves that providing employees with guidelines for revealing fraud can save a company thousands of dollars each year. The creation and inception of a whistleblowing policy is a small price to pay for safeguarding a company against losses to fi nancial and human capital. Whistleblowing happens for a variety of reasons, including identifying corruption, public safety and securities fraud.Sometimes the whistleblower is a direct employee of the company brought under scrutiny, while others have inside knowledge of wrongdoings through a working relationship. Although whistleblowing happens all around the world, the United States has had its share of famous cases that brought about new regulations to control further corruption in business dealings. Three cases and their outcomes are: 1)In June 1972, a break-in at the Watergate Hotel in Washington, D. C. led to the resignation of the then current President, Richard M. Nixon.One of the perpetrators was a former CIA operative and a current security advisor to the President’s re-election campaign. Notebooks containing the phone number for â€Å"E. Howard Hunt (W. H. )† were found on two of the men, and these clues gave rise to intense media attention (Woodward, 2005). The United States Senate started an investigation to determine how far reaching the scandal was. A confidential informant, later dubbed â€Å"Deep Throat†, provided Washington reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein insight into misdeeds by the President and his advisors.â€Å"Deep Throat† continued to tell Woodward & Bernstein to â€Å"follow the money† until they eventually uncovered the illegal indiscretions happening in the White House (Arnold, 2008). On May 31, 2005, Vanity Fair magazine released the announcement that former FBI Associate Director Mark Felt was in fact â€Å"Deep Throat. † Felt was convicted of authorizing illegal FBI searches in 1980 and was later pardoned by President Ronald Reagan. 2)Dr. Jeffrey Wigand, a former vice president and head of research and development for Brown and Williamson, disclosed deceptive practices by tobacco companies in the manipulation of nicotine.He communicated that they knew nicotine was addictive, but failed to act upon it (Arnold, 2008). Jeffrey also insisted that the company ignored research proving that flavoring added to cigarettes caused cancer, along with concealing damaging documents that could be used against them in cases brought by sick patients. â€Å"Jeffrey considered the whistleblowing a great personal risk to himself and his family but still decided that it was for the better good of people and society for the practice to be exposed† (Whistleblower Center, n. d.)Testifying as a master witness, he helped the formation of the 1998 Master Settlement Agreement that implemented a $246 billion settlement against large tobacco giants. Wigand was fired from his position prior to blowing the whistle, and he described his subsequent harassment in an interview on 60 Minutes in 1996. Becoming a whistleblower had damaging effects on Wigand’s life, some of which he has overcome after a great many years. He no longer had any privacy, and his reputation was ruined. D eath threats against him precluded that he needed around-the-clock bodyguards for several years.His wife divorced him and took his two children to live with her in another state. A critically acclaimed movie titled The Insider was made about his story in 1999 and it highlighted the harassment that he endured. After the movie came out, Jeffrey was in demand to speak at schools and health organizations about the dangers of tobacco and smoking (Salter, 2002). Salter also states that Wigand became a teacher and eventually reconciled with his children. 3)One of the most famous whistleblowing cases in recent history involved the collapse of the energy giant, Enron.Executive Sherron Watkins disclosed extreme accounting irregularities to Enron CEO Kenneth Lay and expressed her concern for the collapse of the company (Arnold, 2008). After Lay did nothing and Watkins was demoted, Enron shares fell to $1 in November 2001 from a mid-2000 high of $90. In their book The Smartest Guys in the Room, McLean and Elkind surmise, â€Å"The Enron scandal grew out of a steady accumulation of habits and values and actions that began years before and finally spiraled out of control† (2004, pgs.  132-133).Deceptive accounting practices hid billions of dollars of debt from failed transactions, and Enron pushed auditors Arthur Anderson to ignore and not report them either. Many of the firm’s executives were convicted and spent time in prison. The auditing firm of Arthur Anderson was indicted and found guilty in District Court, but the Supreme Court later overturned the conviction. By this time, Anderson’s reputation had been marred and most of their customers abandoned them. This led to the shutdown of the firm.The lies and deceptions by both Enron and Arthur Anderson helped to create the previously mentioned SOX legislation. Several studies have been done on whistleblowers over the years to determine the motivation behind their actions. â€Å"While results seem t o differ slightly across studies, whistleblowers (as compared with inactive observers) tend to have good job performance, to be more highly educated, to hold higher-level or supervisory positions, to score higher on tests of moral reasoning, and to value whistleblowing in the face of unethical behavior† (as cited in Mesmer-Magnus & Viswesvaran, 2005).This information indicates that someone with a lot of responsibility in an organization will have the knowledge of unethical, internal practices. A person of high moral judgment is more likely to turn in a company for violating various laws and standards, than someone who is okay with cutting corners to keep him employed. Before becoming a whistleblower, a person must have absolute certainty that a protected Act is being violated. The OSHA website contains a list of the Acts and their descriptions to determine which one is being breached. It will also provide the type of communication for the complaint (i.  e. telephone or writi ng. )Adherence to the guidelines is important to ensure that protection coverage is available in the case of retaliation by an employer. In addition, weighing the many pros and cons before making a decision to blow the whistle on a company or organization is vital. Whistleblowing should not be taken lightly, and the decision should be carefully thought out. Aggressive documentation of the issues and conversations with company management is extremely important. Researching which authority to approach is highly imperative.Although law protects whistleblowers, they sometimes will incur job loss, harassment, intimidation and even loss of property or life while pursuing the issue and resolution. Long, drawn-out court cases can lead to a loss of income and notoriety. Lengthy investigations can lead to secret personal issues becoming known. Lots of support from family and friends is needed during an investigation because the intense scrutiny can break down a person’s will. A person needs to be certain that they are prepared for an onslaught from the government and media prior to proceeding with their disclosure.Conversely, whistleblowing will give a person a moral sense of pride. Standing up for what you believe in will show people that you are not afraid to fight for what is right. Whistleblowers may also be looked upon as trustworthy since they are looking out for the welfare of others. Sometimes it is possible to obtain reward sums of money from the government for uncovering injustices. Lastly, if a whistleblower is unjustly retaliated against, they may obtain monetary remedies from their companies for retaliation.A recent tax fraud case against the Swiss bank USB AG awarded the whistleblower a record $104 million reward provided by the United State Internal Revenue Service (Temple-West & Browning, 2012). In a rare case like this, the whistleblower spent time in prison for his wrongdoing, but then was handsomely rewarded for turning in his employer for prom oting an illegal act. People have deeply personal reasons for blowing the whistle. Some may see it as a safety concern, while others who have participated in illegal acts have had a guilty conscience that they want to unburden.Hundreds of cases are reported, dismissed and/or won each year with the help of OSHA. Being a whistleblower is not something to be taken lightly as many questions must be raised before proceeding with the act. Numerous laws have made it easier for people to come forward when they witness misdeeds by those in charge, but knowing history and potential outcomes prior to voicing concerns will enable a person to deal with the backlash. Having good moral judgment and standing up for what you believe in will allow a person to live their life with few worries and a clear conscience.